As the need for geographical data rapidly expands in the 21st century, so too do applications of small-format aerial photography for a wide range of scientific, commercial and governmental purposes. Small-format Aerial Photography (SFAP) presents basic and advanced principles and techniques with an emphasis on digital cameras. Unmanned platforms are described in considerable detail, including kites, helium and hot-air blimps, model airplanes, and paragliders. Several case studies, primarily drawn from the geosciences, are presented to demonstrate how SFAP is actually used in various applications. Many of these integrate SFAP with ground-based investigations as well as conventional large-format aerial photography, satellite imagery, and other kinds of geographic information.

Part I


Chapter 1: Introduction to small-format aerial photography

1-1. Overview

1-2. Brief history

1-2.1. 19th century

1-2.2. 20th century

1-3. Photography and imagery

1-4. Conventional aerial photography

1-5. Small-format aerial photography

1-6. Summary


Chapter 2: Basic principles of SFAP

2-1. Remote sensing

2-1.1. Ideal remote sensing

2-1.2. Actual SFAP

2-2. Common aspects of SFAP

2-2.1. Image vantage

2-2.2. Photographic scale and resolution

2-2.3. Relief displacement

2-2.4. Stereoscopic images

2-3. Photographic storage

2-4. Summary


Chapter 3: Photogrammetry

3-1. Introduction

3-2. Geometry of single photographs

3-2.1. Vertical photography

3-2.2. Tilted photography

3-2.3. Interior orientation

3-2.4. Exterior orientation

3-3. Geometry of stereophotographs

3-3.1. Principle of stereoscopic viewing

3-3.2. Base-height ratio and stereoscopic coverage

3-3.3. 3D measurements from stereomodels

3-3.4. Creating stereomodels with aerial triangulation by bundle-block adjustment

3-4. Quantitative analysis of photographs

3-4.1. Measuring and mapping from single photographs

3-4.2. Manual measuring and mapping from stereomodels

3-4.3. Automatic DEM extraction from stereomodels

3-5. Summary


Chapter 4: Lighting and atmospheric conditions

4-1. Introduction

4-2. Multiview-angle effects

4-3. Bidirectional reflectance distribution function

4-4. Multispectral effects

4-5. Latitude and seasonal conditions

4-6. Clouds

4-7. Shadows

4-8. Summary


Chapter 5: Photographic composition

5-1. Introduction

5-2. Basic elements of photographic composition

5-2.1. Oblique and vertical views

5-2.2. Linear features

5-2.3. Image depth

5-2.4. Pattern and texture

5-2.5. Color

5-3. Combining compositional elements

5-4. Photographs vs. human vision

5.5. Summary


Part II


Chapter 6: Cameras for SFAP

6-1. Introduction

6-2. Film camera basics

6-3. Digital camera basics

6-3.1. Types of digital cameras

6-3.2. Image sensors

6-3.3. Image file formats

6-4. Camera geometry and light

6-4.1. Focal length

6-4.2. Lens aperture

6-4.3. Shutter speed

6-4.4. Film speed or ISO rating

6-4.5. Camera exposure settings

6-4.6. Image degradation

6-5. Color-infrared photography

6-6. Camera capabilities for SFAP

6-6.1. Camera lens

6-6.2. Image sensor

6-6.3. File format

6-6.4. Camera type

6-6.5. Camera calibration

6-7. Summary


Chapter 7: Camera mounting systems

7-1. Introduction

7-2. Camera operation

7-3. Detachable mounts

7-3.1. Single-camera suspended rigs

7-3.2. Multiple-camera suspended rigs

7-3.3. Attaching suspendable mounts to a platform

7-3.4. Detactable modular unit mounts

7-4. Fixed mounts

7-5. Summary


Chapter 8: Platforms for SFAP

8-1. Introduction

8-2. Manned light-sport aircraft

8-2.1. Powered light-sport aircraft

8-2.2. Unpowered light-sport aircraft

8-3. Lighter-than-air platforms

8-3.1. Lifting gases

8-3.2. Helium blimp

8-3.3. Hot-air blimp

8-4. Kite aerial photography

8-4.1. Kites for SFAP

8-4.2. Kite-flying equipment

8-4.3. Ground operations

8-5. Drones for SFAP

8-5.1. Basic model airplane

8-5.2. Autopiloted model airplane

8-5.3. Powered paraglider

8-6. Pros and cons of different platforms

8-7. Summary


Chapter 9: SFAP survey planning and implementation

9-1. Introduction

9-2. Travel and equipment logistics

9-3. Site accessibility and characteristics

9-3.1. Local site accessibility

9-3.2. Flight obstacles

9-3.3. Local wind conditions

9-3.4. High-altitude SFAP

9-4. Ground Control

9-4.1. GCP installation

9-4.2. GCP coordinate measurement

9-5. Flight planning considerations

9-5.1. Image scale and resolution

9-5.2. Stereoscopic and large-area coverage

9-6. Flight planning example

9-6.1. Initial calculations: Complete coverage with single image

9-6.2. Revised calulations: Optimal image resolution

9-6.3. Consequences for aerial survey design

9-6.4. Ideal flightline calculation

9-7. Flight planning for oblique SFAP

9-8. Legal issues

9-8.1. German regulations

9-8.2. Regulations in the U.S. and other countries

9-8.3. Insurance

9-9. Summary


Chapter 10. Image interpretation

10-1. Introduction

10-2. Image interpretability

10-3. SFAP interpretation

10-3.1. Water and drainage

10-3.2. Geomorphology

10-3.3. Vegetation and agriculture

10-3.4. Cultural heritage and archaeology

10-3.5. Soils

10-4. Summary


Chapter 11: Image processing and analysis

11-1. Introduction

11-2. Geometric correction and georeferencing

11-2.1. Reference coordinate systems

11-2.2. Image rectification

11-2.3. Image mosaics

11-3. Image enhancement

11-3.1. Correcting lens-dependent aberrations

11-3.2. Contrast enhancement

11-3.3. Image filtering

11-4. Image transformation

11-4.1. Image ratios and vegetation indices

11-4.2. Principal components analysis and color-space transformations

11-5. Image classification

11-6. Stereoviewing and photogrammetric analysis

11-6.1. Creating simple on-screen stereoviews

11-6.2. Using printouts under a stereoscope

11-6.3. Digital stereoviewing

11-6.4. Stereoscopic measuring and mapping

11-6.5. DEM generation

11-7. Software for SFAP analysis

11-8. Summary


Part III


Chapter 12: Glacial geomorphology

12-1. Introduction

12-2. Glacial erosion

12-3. Glacial deposition

12-4. Glacial deformation

12-5. Summary


Chapter 13: Gully erosion monitoring

13-1. Introduction

13-2. Study sites and survey

13-3. Gully mapping and change analysis

13-4. Summary


Chapter 14: Wetland environments

14-1. Overview

14-2. Raised bogs, Estonia

14-2.1. Endla Nature Reserve

14-2.2. Nigula Nature Reserve

14-2.3. Discussion

14-3. Prairie marshes and playas, Kansas

14-3.1. Cheyenne Bottoms

14-3.2. Dry Lake

14-3.3. Discussion

14-4. Summary


Chapter 15: Biocontrol of salt cedar

15-1. Salt cedar problem

15-2. USBR study site

15-3. Analysis of KAP results

15-4. Summary


Chapter 16: Vegetation and erosion

16-1. Introduction

16-2. Monitoring vegetation and erosion test sites

16-3. Influence of grazing on vegetation cover

16-4. Combating desertification and soil degradation

16-5. Summary


Chapter 17: Soil mapping and soil degradation

17-1. Introduction

17-2. Soils and long-term human land use

17-3. Summary


Chapter 18: Architecture and property management

18-1. Introduction

18-2. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri

18-3. Property management, Lake Kahola, Kansas

18-4. Summary


Chapter 19: Golf course management

19-1. Overview

19-2. Garden City, Kansas

19-3. Summary


References

Index